Fu, Q. et al. We can reject a scenario in which CHG and WHG form a distinct clade with respect to EF. We extend the scope of European palaeogenomics by sequencing the genomes of Late Upper Palaeolithic (13,300 years old, 1.4-fold coverage) and Mesolithic (9,700 years old, 15.4-fold) males from western Georgia in the Caucasus and a Late Upper Palaeolithic (13,700 years old, 9.5-fold) male from Switzerland. Science 346, 11131118 (2014). Novel high-resolution characterization of ancient DNA reveals C>U-type base modification events as the sole cause of post mortem miscoding lesions. These people died between 9,700 and 13,300 years ago. Ancient DNA Reveals History of Hunter-Gatherers in Europe. "Its tremendously interesting that the authors identify a similarity between the early hunter-gatherers in the Caucasus by mapping their genetics, and the Bronze Age people from Yamnaya culture, which we published on earlier this year [2015]," writes Associate Professor Morten Allentoft from the Center for Geogenetics, at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, in an email to ScienceNordic. [5] He was one of a previously unknown group of hunter-gatherers in the Caucasus, and their DNA survives in many of todays Europeans. 3. Golovanova, L. V., Doronichev, V. B., Cleghorn, N. E., et al. Nature 522, 207211 (2015). Ancient admixture in human history. Am. As such it is interesting that they lack an ancestral coefficient of the EF genome (Fig. You can see the Kotias skeleton here. Metspalu, M. et al. This new lineage stems from populations of hunter-gatherers that split from western hunter-gatherers shortly after the 'out of Africa' expansion some 45,000 years ago By 18,000 years ago, temperatures began to rise and deglaciation occurred. She was lactose-intolerant and carried a genetic variant for hemochromatosis, which can cause excessive iron retention. Bear with me. Mateja Hajdinjak, Fabrizio Mafessoni, Svante Pbo, Peter de Barros Damgaard, Nina Marchi, Eske Willerslev, Natalija Kashuba, Emrah Krdk, Anders Gtherstrm, Anna Linderholm, Glah Merve Kln, Maja Krzewiska, Katerina Douka, Viviane Slon, Tom Higham, Fuzuki Mizuno, Jun Gojobori, Shintaroh Ueda, Selina Brace, Yoan Diekmann, Ian Barnes, Nature Communications The most significantly negative statistics which are highlighted by the yellow box in a. Ancient genomes from Eurasia have revealed three ancestral populations that contributed to contemporary Europeans in varying degrees1. Nat. Protoc. Georgians celebrate Easter Sunday by having a picnic accompanied with wine and toasts at ancestors cemetery. Genomic affinities of two 7,000-year-old Iberian hunter-gatherers. ADS Its fascinating, and as always, Im tempted to visit some of these places to see what it feels like to stand on the same ground. Nat. 1347, 179195 (2015). (a). +47 22 80 98 90, Copenhagen: c/o Videnskab.dk, Carl Jacobsens Vej 16, Entr. Genome Res. TOM BJOERKLUND. Genet. 1a) and outgroup f3 analysis (Supplementary Fig. Genetics 192, 10651093 (2012). These new genomes, together with already published data, provide us with a much-improved geographic and temporal coverage of genetic diversity across Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM)8. Is treatment always the best solution for patients with terminal cancer ? Genotype calls from Kotias, Satsurblia, Bichon and selected Eurasian samples (Supplementary Table 1; Supplementary Note 10) were merged with modern genotype calls from the Human Origins data set1 using PLINK45. Sample preparation, DNA extraction and library construction were carried out in dedicated ancient DNA facilities at Trinity College Dublin (Kotias and Satsurblia) and the University of York, England (Bichon). M.C. decline in global inflation from almost 9% in 2022 contained, global growth is forecast to slow to. 3) which inform on past population size3,19,20. Li, H. et al. He was 5-foot-3, about 130 pounds, and was lactose-intolerant. Photo by Eppie Jones. This result is mirrored in western Europe as Bichon is close to other WHG in PCA space (Fig. We show that CHG belong to a new, distinct ancient clade that split from WHG 45kya and from Neolithic farmer ancestors 25kya. By comparison, I share 10% of my DNA with one of my paternal cousins. prepared sequencing libraries for Bichon. Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe. Am. YFitter44, which employs a maximum likelihood based approach, was used to determine Y chromosome haplogroups for our ancient male samples (Supplementary Table 19). The IMF's most recent projections anticipate a Even if the economic fallout remains comparatively. Article about male lineages in the Caucasus related to the ancient hunter gatherer. Kirin, M. et al. The only way to untangle the modern weave is to sequence genomes from thousands of years ago, before the mixing took place.. Satsurblia: new insights of human response and survival across the Last Glacial Maximum in the southern Caucasus. 9). 2014. Croat. Ancient data from Bichon, Kotias and Satsurblia genomes were projected11 onto the first two principal components defined by . et al. (a). Genet. This DNA comes from a femur found in western Siberia, and is the oldest genome for homo sapiens on record. Surprisingly, we find that CHG influence is stronger in northern than Southern Europe (Fig. The minimal cross-validation error was found at K=17, but the error already starts plateauing from roughly K=10, implying little improvement from this point onwards. The other group refers to ancient remains found in the Satsurblia cave, also in Georgia. Adapter sequences were trimmed from the 3' ends of reads using cutadapt version 1.3 (ref. But these matches allegedly dont indicate direct lineage a match with tzi doesnt mean hes your direct ancestor. Lazaridis, I. et al. Our closest evolutionary relatives, Neanderthals were hunters who produced stone tools and were capable of creating glues, using pigments and even building structures [1, 2]. 3), thus implying a degree of continuity in both regions stretching back at least 13,000 years to the late Upper Palaeolithic. Nature Communications 6, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caucasus_regions_map.png, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:West_Caucasian_Tur_(4747560089).jpg, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Microlith_(FindID_99369).jpg. He was one of a previously unknown group of hunter-gatherers in the Caucasus, and their DNA survives in many of today's Europeans. Mallory, J. P. Yamna Culture. CHG genomes significantly contributed to the Yamnaya steppe herders who migrated into Europe 3,000 BC, supporting a formative Caucasus influence on this important Early Bronze age culture. Hart, K. L. et al. Ancient genomes taken from 13,300-year-old human remains (pictured) found in the Kotia Klde rock shelter in western Georgia, are said to be the 'missing piece in the puzzle' of European. So much so, that almost all modern Europeans now carry some of their DNA. Clustering using ADMIXTURE software12 confirms this view, with CHG forming their own homogenous cluster (Fig. (a). Nature 491, 5665 (2012). 20, 12971303 (2010). One SNP from each pair in linkage disequilibrium with r2>0.2 was removed47. This DNA comes from a man who was buried in Kotias Klde cave in the Caucasus Mountains of Georgia. Science 328, 710722 (2010). Genet. Purcell, S. et al. Moorjani, P. et al. Heres what I found, from oldest to most recent. This data set was first filtered to exclude genotypes which had a minor allele frequency of zero in the modern populations, non-autosomal sites and modern populations with less than four individuals. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in linkage disequilbrium were thinned using PLINK (v1.07)45 with parametersindep-pairwise 200 25 0.5 (ref. Pinhasi, R., Thomas, M. G., Hofreiter, M., Currat, M. & Burger, J. 6:8912 doi: 10.1038/ncomms9912 (2015). Origins and genetic legacy of Neolithic farmers and hunter-gatherers in Europe. The cave has many stalactites, stalagmites, travertines and large gourds of limestone. The Maikop culture predated and, possibly with earlier southern influences, contributed to the formation of the adjacent Yamnaya culture that emerged further to the north and may be a candidate for the transmission of CHG ancestry. Danecek, P. et al. Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians. The Caucasus hunter-gatherers later became isolated there for millennia during the last Ice Age, the scientists said. Thus, WHG split first, with CHG and EF separating only at a later stage. 43, 10311034 (2011). This analysis was carried out using EIGENSOFT 5.0.1 smartpca11 with the lsqproject option on and the outlier removal option off. 1), belongs to the same cluster as other WHG in ADMIXTURE analysis (Fig. To extend our overview of WHG to a time depth similar to the one available for our samples from the Caucasus, we also sequenced a western European Late Upper Palaeolithic genome, Bichon (9.5-fold) from Grotte du Bichon, Switzerland. CHG left their imprint on modern populations from the Caucasus and also central and south Asia possibly marking the arrival of Indo-Aryan languages. Share 196 Tweet 123 Share. Snchez-Quinto, F. et al. BP (for further details on the archaeological context see Supplementary Note 1). Because of the low average coverage of Satsurblia (1.44 ) we also used imputed genotypes for this sample (see above) imposing a genotype probability cut-off of 0.85 (ref. Its separation from other European ancestral strands ended dramatically with the extensive population, linguistic and technological upheavals of the Early Bronze Age resulting in a wide impact of this ancestral strand on contemporary populations, stretching from the Atlantic to Central and South Asia. This was a male with Y-DNA J2a and mtDNA H13c. Significance was assessed using a block jackknife over 5cM chunks of the genome14 and statistics were considered significant if their Z-score was of magnitude greater than 3 (ref. Irelands modern population has one of the highest frequencies of lactase persistence, as well as hemochromatosis. Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 37(1): 15-24. Sci. 1b). The new study identifies a fourth group who lived in the Caucasus Mountains in Georgia, south of Russia. Golovanova, L.V., Doronichev, V.B, Kulkova, M.A., Cleghorn, N. and Sapelko, T. 2010. 1a). For context we included data from published Eurasian ancient genomes sampled from the Late Pleistocene and Holocene where at least 200000 SNPs were called1,2,3,4,5,6,7,9 (Supplementary Table 1). Early Neanderthal constructions deep in Bruniquel Cave in southwestern France. Bollongino, R. et al. ADS The relationship is only rough, as the physical chromosomal distance corresponding to one centimorgan varies from place to place in the genome, and also varies between men and women since recombination during gamete formation in females is significantly more frequent than in males. Pemberton, T. J. et al. Seguin-Orlando, A. et al. Recent excavations of Satsurblia cave in Western Georgia yielded a human right temporal bone, dated to the Late Upper Palaeolithic 13,13213,380cal. Natl Acad. A third skeleton was from Switzerland--a 13,700 years old hunter-gatherer man. Forensic Sci. "We managed to map the entire genetic material in very high quality for two of the three genomes, so we can see every single DNA base.". WASHINGTON (Reuters) - DNA extracted from a skull and a molar tooth of ancient human remains discovered in the southern Caucasus region of Georgia is helping sort out the multifaceted ancestry of modern Europeans. Current Anthropology 51(5): 655-691, Golovanova, L.V., Doronichev, V. and Cleghorn, N. 2010. DNA analysis reveals that people from Kotias were genetically similar to Caucasian people dating to the preceding Upper Palaeolithic period, specifically individuals from Satsurblia Cave, another site in Western Georgia. Bichon, like younger WHG, shows strongest affinity to northern Europeans (Supplementary Fig. Y-DNA mtDNA Mean Age (ybp) Country - Culture; 6 samples found (0.04% of all samples). Neandertals revised. 3. Earth-Science Reviews 125: 171-198. Greatest support is found for Yamnaya being a mix of Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) and Russian hunter-gatherers who belong to an eastern extension of the WHG clade (EHG). The discovery sheds new light on European prehistory and also solves old mysteries concerning the colonisation of America. An update with the "new" ancient DNA from the Middle East and Iran Date: Before Present (x years ago) Archaic Human . 19, 16551664 (2009). We investigated this further using D-statistics of the form D(Yoruba, Kotias; EF, modern Western European population), which confirmed a significant introgression from CHG into modern northern European genomes after the early Neolithic period (Supplementary Fig. Kotias shares the most genetic drift with populations from the Caucasus with high values also found for northern Europe and central Asia. This research was supported by the European Research Council (ERC) Starting Grant to R.P. He was a nephew of Confederate General John Hunt Morgan. The Yamnaya are descended from this group. Average depth of coverage was calculated using genome analysis toolkit (GATK) Depth of Coverage and indels were realigned using RealignerTargetCreator and IndelRealigner from the same suite of tools40. 35, 57175728 (2007). This mans skeleton was found in 1835 under a rock shelter in Mullerthal, in eastern Luxembourg. Location' to show object on the map. BP. Bioinformatics 29, 16821684 (2013). Nowadays, the Caucasian populations of the Upper Palaeolithic and Epipaleolithic are still genetically very similar to modern day Caucasians. The sites are situated in the river valleys, Fig. However, earlier movements associated with other developments such as that of cereal farming and herding are also plausible. A groundbreaking study of fossil genomes reveals that modern Europeans were shaped in a melting pot of immigrants. These sources may be linked to the Maikop culture, which predated the Yamnaya and was located further south, closer to the Southern Caucasus. (b). It is estimated that this admixture in the ancestors of Indian populations occurred relatively recently, 1,9004,200 years BP, and is possibly linked with migrations introducing Indo-European languages and Vedic religion to the region28. Google Scholar. One sample was from Kotias Klde, western Georgia (in the Caucasus, not the US state) dating to 9,529-9,895 cal. As relations grow more distant, the number of shared segments and, more significantly, the length of those segments goes way down. Scientists said on Monday they sequenced the genomes of two individuals, one from 13,300 years ago and the other from 9,700 years ago, and found they represented a previously unknown lineage that. Genet. This is a Kotias skeleton, from which some of the ancient DNA came. Ancient data from Bichon, Kotias and Satsurblia genomes were projected11 onto the first two principal components defined by selected Eurasians from the Human Origins data set1. Indeed, the Caucasus would have acted as a perfect dispersal corridor, allowing humans to spread into Asia and Europe. Antiquity 84: 299-320, Bar-Yosef, O., Belfer-Cohen, A. and Adler, D.S. mtDNA haplogroups: H13c Genet. The percentage. In any case, the sharp genomic distinctions between these post-LGM populations contrasts with the comparative lack of differentiation between the earlier Eurasian genomes, for example, as visualized in the ADMIXTURE analysis (Fig. 2, e190 (2006). 1 ): three archaeological cave sites - Satsurblia Cave 33, Dzudzuana 34, Kotias Klde 35 - and three non-archaeological cave. Cut marks on skeletal remains suggest that bears may have been pursued for their fur [9]. J. Archaeol. "It's a whole new thread that has found its way to us today and affects people from Ireland and all the way to Southeast Asia," says lead-author Professor Daniel Bradley at Trinity College Dublin, Ireland. 22, 14941499 (2012). 2009. Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians. Until now, only three such ancestral strands had been identified flowing from ancient populations. Central and South Asian populations received genetic influx from CHG (or a population close to them), as shown by a prominent CHG component in ADMIXTURE (Supplementary Fig. PLoS ONE 5, e13996 (2010). Alexander, D. H., Novembre, J. This was sequenced to 15.4-fold genome coverage. The Genome Analysis Toolkit: a MapReduce framework for analyzing next-generation DNA sequencing data. I recently discovered that GEDmatch allows you to match your DNA against samples from different archaic DNA finds, such as tzi or the Kennewick man. Genetic evidence for recent population mixture in India. This view, which was initially based on a handful of genomes, was recently confirmed by extensive surveys of Eurasian samples from the Holocene5,7. Colonisation of America acted as a perfect dispersal corridor, allowing humans to spread into Asia and Europe Eurasians... On modern populations from the Caucasus Mountains in Georgia years to the ancient DNA came of lactase persistence as! And 13,300 years ago R., Thomas, M., Currat, M., Currat, M.,,! Was 5-foot-3, about 130 pounds, and was lactose-intolerant Even if the economic fallout remains comparatively version (. They lack an ancestral coefficient of the Upper Palaeolithic and Epipaleolithic are still genetically very similar to day... Article about male lineages in the Caucasus would have acted as a perfect dispersal corridor, allowing to! Solves old mysteries concerning the colonisation of America scenario in which CHG and WHG form a distinct with. Novel high-resolution characterization of ancient DNA reveals C & gt ; U-type base modification events as sole! - Satsurblia cave 33, Dzudzuana 34, Kotias Klde, western Georgia a., only three such ancestral strands had been identified flowing from ancient populations modern populations from the Caucasus not! Mtdna H13c both regions stretching back at least 13,000 years to the late Upper Palaeolithic 13,13213,380cal well as hemochromatosis was... Y-Dna mtDNA mean Age ( ybp ) Country - Culture ; 6 samples found ( 0.04 % my... Caucasian populations of the EF genome ( Fig Carl Jacobsens Vej 16, Entr some of EF... ( 1 ): 655-691, golovanova, L.V., Doronichev, V. B. Cleghorn! In ADMIXTURE analysis ( Fig hunter-gatherer man modern populations from the Caucasus with high values also found for northern and... Bone, dated to the same cluster as other WHG in PCA (! Linkage disequilbrium were thinned using PLINK ( v1.07 ) 45 with parametersindep-pairwise 200 25 0.5 ( ref thinned... Belongs to the ancient DNA came, western Georgia ( in the Caucasus and also solves old mysteries concerning colonisation! L.V., Doronichev, V.B, Kulkova, M.A., Cleghorn, N. 2010 34, Kotias and Satsurblia were! Origins and genetic legacy of Neolithic farmers and hunter-gatherers in Europe early Neanderthal constructions deep in Bruniquel cave in Caucasus... Mountains in Georgia Kotias and Satsurblia genomes were projected11 onto the first two principal components defined by have. Is treatment always the best solution for patients with terminal cancer excessive iron retention from... Imprint on modern populations from the Caucasus and also central and south Asia possibly marking arrival. ( Fig south of Russia WHG split first, with CHG and WHG form a distinct clade with respect EF... Clade that split from WHG 45kya and from Neolithic farmer ancestors 25kya dispersal corridor, allowing humans to into... N. 2010 Neolithic farmer ancestors 25kya R., Thomas, M. & kotias georgia ancient dna! Neolithic farmers and hunter-gatherers in Europe Eurasia 37 ( 1 ) kotias georgia ancient dna 15-24 which. - Culture ; 6 samples found ( 0.04 % of all samples ) also Georgia! Europe as Bichon is close to other WHG in ADMIXTURE analysis ( Supplementary Fig southwestern France from pair! Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 37 ( 1 ): 15-24 fourth group who lived the... South Asia possibly marking the arrival of Indo-Aryan languages dispersal corridor, allowing humans to into! Cause excessive iron retention the Caucasian populations of the EF genome ( Fig oldest genome for homo on! 80 98 90, Copenhagen: c/o Videnskab.dk, Carl Jacobsens Vej 16, Entr nowadays, the Caucasian of..., D.S N. and Sapelko, T. 2010 acted as a perfect dispersal corridor, humans. State ) dating to 9,529-9,895 cal was supported by the European research Council ( ERC ) Starting to. Genomes reveals that modern Europeans were shaped in a melting pot of immigrants using! Cave has many stalactites, stalagmites, travertines and large gourds of limestone genomes were projected11 onto the two! Been pursued for their fur [ 9 ] B., Cleghorn, E.. Goes way kotias georgia ancient dna Caucasus, not the US state ) dating to cal... Are also plausible during the last Ice Age, the Caucasus would have acted as a perfect corridor! Frequencies of lactase persistence, as well as hemochromatosis, Ethnology & of... 3 ), belongs to the late Upper Palaeolithic of their DNA ancient came., and was lactose-intolerant rock shelter in Mullerthal, in eastern Luxembourg global growth is forecast to to. Europe and central Asia mtDNA H13c situated in the Caucasus Mountains of Georgia back at least 13,000 years the! Groundbreaking study of fossil genomes reveals that modern Europeans now carry some of their DNA archaeological cave -! In linkage disequilibrium with r2 > 0.2 was removed47 forecast to slow.. Was carried out using EIGENSOFT 5.0.1 smartpca11 with the lsqproject option on and the outlier removal option off Council ERC. Marks on skeletal remains suggest that bears may have been pursued for their fur 9! Analysis Toolkit: a MapReduce framework for analyzing next-generation DNA sequencing data IMF & # x27 ; show!, N. E., et al northern Europeans ( Supplementary Fig ancestors cemetery so much so that. Influence is stronger in northern than Southern Europe ( Fig Bar-Yosef, O., Belfer-Cohen A.! ( Fig, Cleghorn, N. 2010 fur [ 9 ] Klde cave in western Siberia, and the! Modern day Caucasians old hunter-gatherer man DNA sequencing data variant for hemochromatosis, which can cause excessive retention! Farming and herding are also plausible 33, Dzudzuana 34, Kotias and Satsurblia genomes were projected11 the... On skeletal kotias georgia ancient dna suggest that bears may have been pursued for their fur [ ]... In 2022 contained, global growth is forecast to slow to fourth group who lived in the river,... Ybp ) Country - Culture ; 6 samples found ( 0.04 % of my DNA with of. Modern day Caucasians of their DNA r2 > 0.2 was removed47 this DNA comes from a femur in! Varying degrees1 Caucasus related to the same cluster as other WHG in PCA (... Persistence, as well as hemochromatosis 13,300 years ago Switzerland -- a 13,700 years old man. Age ( ybp ) Country - Culture ; 6 samples found ( 0.04 % of my DNA with of... Whg in PCA space ( Fig pursued for their fur [ 9 ] Europeans Supplementary! Ends of reads using cutadapt version 1.3 ( ref may have been for! Remains suggest that bears may have been pursued for their fur [ ]... 13,300 years ago new study identifies a fourth group who lived in Caucasus. Palaeolithic 13,13213,380cal Indo-Aryan languages hunter gatherer cereal farming and herding are also plausible off. Components defined by split from WHG 45kya and from Neolithic farmer ancestors 25kya B., Cleghorn, 2010! Caucasus Mountains in Georgia, south of Russia accompanied with wine and toasts at ancestors cemetery the IMF #... And Europe 0.2 was removed47 ): 655-691, golovanova, L.V., Doronichev,,! And Epipaleolithic are still genetically very similar to modern day Caucasians group who lived in the Mountains..., Carl Jacobsens Vej 16, Entr is forecast to slow to, J cave southwestern. Human right temporal bone, dated to the ancient hunter gatherer implying a degree of continuity in both stretching!, O., Belfer-Cohen, A. and Adler, D.S of those segments goes down... Software12 confirms this view, with CHG and WHG form a distinct clade with respect EF. 5 ): 655-691, golovanova, L.V., Doronichev, V. and Cleghorn N.!, M.A., Cleghorn, N. 2010 Neolithic farmer ancestors 25kya length of those segments way. Of Satsurblia cave 33, Dzudzuana 34, Kotias and Satsurblia genomes were onto..., Fig they lack an ancestral coefficient of the highest frequencies of lactase,! Europeans ( Supplementary Fig and outgroup f3 analysis kotias georgia ancient dna Supplementary Fig ( )... With other developments such as that of cereal farming and herding are also plausible Bichon, Kotias cave! Culture ; 6 samples found ( 0.04 % of my DNA with one of my with., D.S mean Age ( ybp ) Country - Culture ; 6 samples found ( 0.04 % all. For hemochromatosis, which can cause excessive iron retention split first, with CHG forming own! Nowadays, the Caucasian populations of the EF genome ( Fig to modern day Caucasians Y-DNA mtDNA Age. 9 ] deep in Bruniquel cave in the river valleys, Fig Bichon is to... This mans skeleton was from Kotias Klde, western Georgia ( in the Caucasus, the... Heres what I found, from which some of the Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern.! The outlier removal option off accompanied with wine and toasts at ancestors cemetery between 9,700 and years. We show that CHG influence is stronger in northern than Southern Europe ( Fig Bar-Yosef! Other WHG in PCA space ( Fig analysis was carried out using EIGENSOFT smartpca11. Using PLINK ( v1.07 ) 45 with parametersindep-pairwise 200 25 0.5 ( ref, J people died between and! Southern Europe ( Fig is a Kotias skeleton, from which some of their.. Now carry some of their DNA and Epipaleolithic are still genetically very similar modern. Of cereal farming and herding are also plausible we find that CHG belong to a new, distinct clade... And was lactose-intolerant and carried a genetic variant for hemochromatosis, which can cause excessive retention! Millennia during the last Ice Age, the number of shared segments and, significantly... 1 ) 6 samples found ( 0.04 % of my paternal cousins shared segments and, more significantly the... And Adler, D.S Switzerland -- a 13,700 years old hunter-gatherer man using 5.0.1! Lived in the Satsurblia cave in southwestern France a femur found in western Georgia yielded a right. Degree of continuity in both regions stretching back at least 13,000 years to the late Upper Palaeolithic and Epipaleolithic still!

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